By Phar Kim Beng, PhD

Introduction

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established on August 8, 1967, with the signing of the Bangkok Declaration by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. At the time, Southeast Asia was a volatile region marked by Cold War rivalries, insurgencies and economic underdevelopment.

ASEAN's foundation was not merely a diplomatic exercise but a strategic necessity for regional stability and economic progress. This essay examines the political and economic conditions that led to ASEAN’s formation, its initial challenges, and how it gradually evolved into a cohesive regional bloc.

Cold War Context and the Necessity of Regional Cooperation

In the 1960s, Southeast Asia was deeply affected by the Cold War, with the Vietnam War escalating and the fear of communist expansion gripping the region. The United States, China and the Soviet Union were competing for influence, often supporting local insurgencies or governments to shape the ideological landscape of the region (Goh, 2013). This polarisation led to heightened insecurity among Southeast Asian states, particularly in the wake of Indonesia’s Konfrontasi (Confrontation) against Malaysia (Leifer, 1989).

ASEAN’s formation was driven by two primary concerns: the need to contain external interventions and the desire for economic growth. The failure of previous regional initiatives, such as the Association of Southeast Asia (ASA) and MAPHILINDO (a short-lived tripartite arrangement between Malaysia, the Philippines and Indonesia), demonstrated the necessity for a more structured and cooperative organisation (Narine, 2002). ASEAN, while not explicitly an anti-communist bloc, was designed to ensure regional autonomy and prevent Southeast Asia from becoming a battleground for great power competition.

The Bangkok Declaration and ASEAN’s Founding Principles

The Bangkok Declaration laid the foundation for ASEAN’s principles, emphasising non-interference, peaceful conflict resolution and regional cooperation. Unlike military alliances such as SEATO (the Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation), ASEAN was deliberately structured as a non-aligned regional organisation (Severino, 2006). The declaration promoted economic growth, social progress, and cultural development as key pillars of regional cooperation.

Indonesian Foreign Minister Adam Malik, Thai Foreign Minister Thanat Khoman and Malaysian Foreign Minister Tun Abdul Razak Hussein played crucial roles in ensuring that ASEAN would not be perceived as an extension of Western strategic interests but as a genuinely regional initiative (Weatherbee, 2019). This was vital in securing the participation of member states that had previously been wary of Western-aligned organisations.

Early Challenges: Internal Rivalries and External Pressures

The initial years of ASEAN were marked by several internal and external challenges. The five founding members had lingering territorial disputes and unresolved historical tensions.

The Philippines continued to claim Sabah, a region under Malaysian sovereignty, creating periodic diplomatic strains (Jenkins, 2018). Indonesia, recovering from the turmoil following the 1965 anti-communist purge, had to balance its regional ambitions with internal consolidation (Elson, 2001).

Externally, ASEAN faced scepticism from both Western and communist powers. The United States viewed ASEAN as a weak economic grouping incapable of playing a meaningful role in the Cold War, while China and the Soviet Union suspected that ASEAN could become a pro-Western alliance over time (Khoo, 2021). Despite this, ASEAN persisted in maintaining its principle of non-alignment, ensuring that it remained independent of external dictates.

ASEAN’s Early Institutional Development

During its formative years, ASEAN focused on confidence-building measures among its members rather than engaging in high-profile diplomatic initiatives. One of the earliest successes was the 1971 Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN) Declaration, which reaffirmed the region’s commitment to preventing outside interference in its affairs (Dosch, 2007).

Another major institutional development was the 1976 Bali Summit, where ASEAN members signed the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC). This treaty formalised ASEAN’s commitment to peaceful dispute resolution and laid the groundwork for future expansions of the bloc (Stubbs, 2008).

Conclusion: The Foundation for Future Growth

The 1967-1976 period was crucial in establishing ASEAN as a viable regional organisation. Despite the challenges posed by Cold War rivalries, internal conflicts, and economic disparities, ASEAN managed to forge a collective identity centred on regional stability and economic cooperation. The foundational principles of non-interference and consensus-building, while often criticised for their limitations, became the cornerstone of ASEAN’s diplomatic resilience in later decades.

ASEAN’s ability to survive and expand beyond its five founding members demonstrated its adaptability. By the 1990s, it would incorporate former adversaries such as Vietnam, Laos and Myanmar, proving that its initial commitment to regional stability had long-term viability.

-- BERNAMA

Phar Kim Beng, PhD, is Professor of ASEAN Studies at International Islamic University of Malaysia.